Browsing by Person "Davis, Rachael"

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Autism and Bilingualism: A Thematic Analysis of Speech and Language Therapist Perspectives in the UK
(Wiley, 2023-07-30) Davis, Rachael; Zaki, Farah Binti Mohd; Sargent, Lesley
Background: At least 25% of autistic children worldwide have the potential to grow up in a bilingual environment. However, many autistic children are being denied opportunities to access additional languages and the cultural, familial and community connections that come with this. There is little evidence identifying the barriers to language learning and access, and no research addressing the perspectives of speech and language therapists (SLTs), who are crucial in supporting parents to make informed choices about bilingualism with their child. Aims: The aim of this research was to understand the experiences of SLTs working with autistic bilingual children, to understand the main considerations when working with families, and the opportunities and barriers for training, including the sources of information that current practice is based on. Methods and Procedures: Twelve SLTs from across the UK were recruited for this study. All participants were experienced in working with autistic bilingual children and their families (M=7 years, Range 4-23 years). Semi-structured interviews were conducted and focused on the experiences of SLTs regarding familial bilingual experiences, the effect of socio-cultural factors of practice, and the extent to which practice is based on current research. Outcomes and Results: Data were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis. Three central themes were identified from the interviews: (1) participants discussed parental uncertainties as to whether they were doing the right thing for their child, (2) while participants were in support of bilingualism, they were not always confident that they were providing the right advice, and found it difficult to in keep up to date with relevant, evidence-based research, (3) participants highlighted a need to shift towards a more inclusive and culturally diverse practice. Conclusions and implications: This is the first qualitative study to understand the perspectives of SLTs working with autistic bilingual children. We identify several key difficulties in supporting access to language learning, and these findings have immediate and longer-term implications for supporting SLTs, and in turn, the children, and families they support.
Autism and Inclusive Practice
(McGraw-Hill Education, 2023-11-21) Davis, Rachael; Laurie, Margaret; Crane, Laura; Niolaki, Georgia; Carr-Fanning, Kate; Terzopoulos, Aris
Objectives: ● To introduce different lenses through which autism can be understood. ● To consider how traditional theories of autism can be reframed by taking a neurodiversity-affirmative approach. ● To reflect on how to best support autistic learners in a classroom environment
Autistic people's access to bilingualism and additional language learning: Identifying the barriers and facilitators for equal opportunities
(Frontiers, 2021-09-22) Davis, Rachael; Fletcher-Watson, Sue; Digard, Bérengère G.; Pearson, Amy
Bilingualism is a valuable tool that enriches and facilitates cultural, social and lived experiences for autistic and non-autistic people alike. Research consistently finds no negative effects of bilingualism and highlights the potential for positive effects across cognitive and socio-cultural domains for autistic and non-autistic children. Yet parents of autistic children remain concerned that bilingualism will cause delays in both cognitive and language development and are still frequently advised by practitioners to raise their child monolingually. Evidently, findings from research are not reflected in practice or subsequent advice, and it is essential to identify ways to ensure equal access to additional language learning. We briefly summarise the existing literature on bilingualism and autism, considering perspectives from the bilingual autistic community, and experimental research. We identify the most pertinent barriers to participation for autistic bilingual children in terms of familial, clinical and educational perspectives. We propose novel solutions to promote additional language learning and suggest changes to practice that will contribute to an evidence base for families and practitioners. This commentary makes innovative recommendations at both the individual and societal level to ensure that autistic bilingual people have equal rights and opportunities to language learning and are optimally supported in accessing them.
Beyond Diagnosis: Setting Research Priorities with the Neurodivergent Community
(SAGE Publications, 2025) Ostaszewska, Agata; Harper, Georgia; Davis, Rachael; Joseph, Holly
Neurodiversity research remains heavily shaped by diagnostic categories, which increasingly appear inadequate for capturing the complex, lived realities of neurodivergent people. These categorical labels often obscure the social and structural barriers that shape daily experiences and limit the utility of research for designing inclusive services. Responding to this gap, our study sought to establish community-led research priorities that transcend diagnostic boundaries. Employing a rigorous, three-stage process—comprising participatory research, a large-scale survey, and a stakeholder workshop—we engaged neurodivergent individuals with diverse diagnostic and self-identified experiences throughout. The resulting top ten priorities expose embedded systemic barriers across mental health, education, social care, welfare, and neurodevelopmental services. Crucially, they also highlight forms of marginalisation that cut across diagnostic lines, including intersectional stigma, institutional discrimination, and exclusionary service models. Our study makes two key contributions: first, it foregrounds research priorities generated by neurodivergent communities themselves; second, it proposes an urgently needed shift in research practice—towards models that centre lived experience, challenge categorical norms, and attend to the structural dimensions of exclusion. By disrupting the diagnostic status quo, this project offers a more inclusive and socially grounded agenda for neurodiversity research.
Computational modeling of interventions for developmental disorders
(American Psychological Association, 2019-06-06) Thomas, Michael S. C.; Fedor, Anna; Davis, Rachael; Yang, Juan; Alireza, Hala; Charman, Tony; Masterson, Jackie; Best, Wendy
We evaluate the potential of connectionist models of developmental disorders to offer insights into the efficacy of interventions. Based on a range of computational simulation results, we assess factors that influence the effectiveness of interventions for reading, language, and other cognitive developmental disorders. The analysis provides a level of mechanistic detail that is generally lacking in behavioral approaches to intervention. We review an extended program of modeling work in four sections. In the first, we consider long-term outcomes and the possibility of compensated outcomes and resolution of early delays. In the second section, we address methods to remediate atypical development in a single network. In the third section, we address interventions to encourage compensation via alternative pathways. In the final section, we consider the key issue of individual differences in response to intervention. Together with advances in understanding the neural basis of developmental disorders and neural responses to training, formal computational approaches can spur theoretical progress to narrow the gap between the theory and practice of intervention.
Evolutionary motor biases and cognition in children with and without autism
(Springer Nature, 2020-10-15) Forrester, Gillian S.; Davis, Rachael; Malatesta, Gianluca; Todd, Brenda K.
Evolution has endowed vertebrates with a divided brain that allows for processing of critical survival behaviours in parallel. Most humans possess a standard functional brain organisation for these ancient sensory-motor behaviours, favouring the right hemisphere for fight-or-flight processes and the left hemisphere for performing structured motor sequences. However, a significant minority of the population possess an organisational phenotype that represents crowding of function in one hemisphere, or a reversal of the standard functional organisation. Using behavioural biases as a proxy for brain organisation, results indicate that reversed brain organisation phenotype increases in populations with autism and is associated with weaker cognitive abilities. Moreover, this study revealed that left-handedness, alone, is not associated with decreased cognitive ability or autism. Rather, left-handedness acts as a marker for decreased cognitive performance when paired with the reversed brain phenotype. The results contribute to comparative research suggesting that modern human abilities are supported by evolutionarily old, lateralised sensory-motor processes. Systematic, longitudinal investigations, capturing genetic measures and brain correlates, are essential to reveal how cognition emerges from these foundational processes. Importantly, strength and direction of biases can act as early markers of brain organisation and cognitive development, leading to promising, novel practices for diagnoses and interventions.
Gaze behaviour to lateral face stimuli in infants who do and do not receive an ASD diagnosis
(Springer Nature, 2020-08-06) Donati, Georgina; Davis, Rachael; Forrester, Gillian S.
Cerebral lateralisation of function is a common characteristic across vertebrate species and is positively associated with fitness of the organism, in humans we hypothesise that it is associated with cognitive fitness. This investigation evaluated the early development of lateralised gaze behaviour for face stimuli in infants at high and low risk for autism from the British Autism Sibling Infant Study (BASIS). The BASIS cohort includes a low risk group and three high-risk groups who at age 3 were developing (i) typically, (ii) atypically or (iii) had received a diagnosis for ASD. Using eye-tracking data derived from a face pop-out task at 6 and 14 months of age, all non-ASD groups showed a bias for stimuli on the left at both timepoints. At 6 months the ASD group demonstrated a preference for stimuli on the right and were slower than their neurotypical counterparts to look at faces on the left. However, by 14 months these differences disappear. Longitudinal associations between lateral looking behaviour at 6 months and language and motor ability at 14 months were also found. Results suggest that infants who go on to be diagnosed with autism exhibit early differences in gaze behaviour that may be associated with subsequent cognitive outcomes.
Helping Autistic Children
(Wiley-Blackwell, 2022-03-18) Davis, Rachael; den Houting, Jacquiline; Nordahl-Hansen, Anders; Fletcher-Watson, Sue; Smith, Peter K.; Hart, Craig H.
Given the emphasis on social and communication difficulties in the diagnostic criteria of autism, and the pivotal role they play in development generally, these domains are commonly key targets for autism interventions. This chapter provides an overview of different types of traditional social interventions, and evaluate their effectiveness and validity. It also presents some of the possible risks associated with such interventions, and suggests a number of means for autistic children to develop social and communication capacities on their own terms, in both family and educational settings. There are well-established racial disparities in autism diagnosis: Black and Hispanic children have historically been less likely to receive an autism diagnosis, compared to White children. The chapter concludes by considering some other factors essential for understanding the social development of autistic children in context, and informing development and delivery of supports.
The left cradling bias: An evolutionary facilitator of social cognition?
(Elsevier, 2018-05-21) Forrester, Gillian S.; Davis, Rachael; Mareschal, Denis; Malatesta, Gianluca; Todd, Brenda K.
A robust left side cradling bias (LCB) in humans is argued to reflect an evolutionarily old left visual field bias and right hemisphere dominance for processing social stimuli. A left visual field bias for face processing, invoked via the LCB, is known to reflect a human population-level right cerebral hemisphere specialization for processing social stimuli. We explored the relationship between cradling side biases, hand dominance and socio-communicative abilities. Four and five year old typically-developing children (N = 98) participated in a battery of manual motor tasks interspersed by cradling trials comprising a(n): infant human doll, infant primate doll, proto-face pillow and no-face pillow. Mean social and communication ability scores were obtained via a survey completed by each child's key teacher. We found a population-level LCB for holding an infant human doll that was not influenced by hand dominance, sex, age or experience of having a younger sibling. Children demonstrating a LCB, did however, obtain a significantly higher mean social ability score compared with their right side cradling counterparts. Like the infant human doll, the proto-face pillow's schematic face symbol was sufficient to elicit a population-level LCB. By contrast, the infant primate doll elicited a population-level right side cradling bias, influenced by both hand dominance and sex. The findings suggest that the LCB is present and visible early in development and is likely therefore, to represent evolutionarily old domain-specific organization and function of the right cerebral hemisphere. Additionally, results suggest that a LCB requires minimal triggering but can be reversed in some situations, possibly in response to species-type or levels of novelty or stress as perceived by the viewer. Patterns of behavioral biases within the context of social stimuli and their associations with cognitive ability are important for understanding how socio-communication abilities emerge in developing children.
Measuring the impact of bilingualism on executive functioning via inhibitory control abilities in autistic children
(Springer, 2021-08-18) Montgomery, Lewis; Chondrogianni, Vicky; Fletcher-Watson, Sue; Rabagliati, Hugh; Sorace, Antonella; Davis, Rachael
One factor that may influence how executive functions develop is exposure to more than one language in childhood. This study explored the impact of bilingualism on inhibitory control in autistic (n = 38) and non-autistic children (n = 51). Bilingualism was measured on a continuum of exposure to investigate the effects of language environment on two facets of inhibitory control. Behavioural control of motor impulses was modulated positively through increased bilingual exposure, irrespective of diagnostic status, but bilingual exposure did not significantly affect inhibition involving visual attention. The results partially support the hypothesis that bilingual exposure differentially affects components of inhibitory control and provides important evidence for families that bilingualism is not detrimental to their development.
Measuring the relationship between bilingual exposure and social attentional preferences in autistic children
(MDPI, 2023-01-16) Davis, Rachael; Montgomery, Lewis; Rabagliati, Hugh; Sorace, Antonella; Fletcher-Watson, Sue
Background: Autistic children show reduced attentional preferences to social stimuli early in development, and these differences have consequences on a range of social domains. One factor that could influence development in those processes is bilingualism. Parents and practitioners frequently have unfounded concerns that bilingualism could cause delays in autistic children, yet there is little evidence to dispute this idea. While there are studies focusing on the impact of bilingualism on cognition in autistic children, no research has focused on the relationship between bilingualism and social attention. Aims: This study therefore investigated the impact of bilingual exposure on social attention in autistic (n=33) and neurotypical children (n=42) aged 6-13 years. Rather than a monolingual/bilingual comparison, participants had varying degrees of bilingual exposure, and exposure was treated as a continuous variable. Participants completed an eye-tracking task measuring visual attention to interacting versus non-interacting human figures. Results: Bilingual exposure did not affect dwell time to interacting or non-interacting figures for the neurotypical or autistic groups. However, there was a 3-way interaction between diagnosis, figure type and vocabulary scores on dwell time. Conclusions: Higher vocabulary scores in neurotypical participants was associated with significantly less dwell time to non-interacting stimuli. This is the first study to assess the effects of bilingualism on social attention; here, concerns of bilingualism are not upheld.
The over-pruning hypothesis of autism
(Wiley, 2015-04-06) Thomas, Michael S. C.; Davis, Rachael; Karmiloff-Smith, Annette; Knowland, Victoria C. P.; Charman, Tony
This article outlines the over-pruning hypothesis of autism. The hypothesis originates in a neurocomputational model of the regressive sub-type (Thomas, Knowland & Karmiloff-Smith, 2011a, 2011b). Here we develop a more general version of the over-pruning hypothesis to address heterogeneity in the timing of manifestation of ASD, including new computer simulations which reconcile the different observed developmental trajectories (early onset, late onset, regression) via a single underlying atypical mechanism; and which show how unaffected siblings of individuals with ASD may differ from controls either by inheriting a milder version of the pathological mechanism or by co-inheriting the risk factors without the pathological mechanism. The proposed atypical mechanism involves overly aggressive synaptic pruning in infancy and early childhood, an exaggeration of a normal phase of brain development. We show how the hypothesis generates novel predictions that differ from existing theories of ASD including that (1) the first few months of development in ASD will be indistinguishable from typical, and (2) the earliest atypicalities in ASD will be sensory and motor rather than social. Both predictions gain cautious support from emerging longitudinal studies of infants at-risk of ASD. We review evidence consistent with the over-pruning hypothesis, its relation to other current theories (including C. Frith's under-pruning proposal; C. Frith, 2003, 2004), as well as inconsistent data and current limitations. The hypothesis situates causal accounts of ASD within a framework of protective and risk factors (Newschaffer et al., 2012); clarifies different versions of the broader autism phenotype (i.e. the implication of observed similarities between individuals with autism and their family members); and integrates data from multiple disciplines, including behavioural studies, neuroscience studies, genetics, and intervention studies.
Raising bilingual autistic children in the UK: At the intersection between neurological and language diversity
(Frontiers Media, 2023-09-08) Digard, Bérengère G.; Johnson, Ellie; Kašćelan, Draško; Davis, Rachael
While research shows no negative effects of bilingualism on autistic children’s development, due to misconceptions around both autism and bilingualism, bilingual parents and educational/clinical practitioners who advise them often express unfounded concerns that exposing autistic children to more than one language will cause confusion and developmental delays. To understand the reasons that drive these misconceptions, this study focuses on: identifying factors that impact family decisions about (not) raising autistic children bilingually; attitudes towards bilingualism expressed by the community, doctors, family members, and teachers; sources of information about bilingualism and autism available to families. Through a mixed-method online survey, we explored these questions in 31 UK-based bilingual families with 34 autistic children (age M = 10.6 years; SD = 7.1). The families reported choosing bilingualism for their autistic child primarily so that the child can communicate with family and community members. Attitudes towards bilingualism in their networks were predominantly positive, with a large portion of individuals not having opinions possibly due to lack of information. Only about 1/3 of parents had access to information on bilingualism and autism, mostly found on the internet. We discuss these findings and offer future directions for research, practice, and battling stigmas around bilingualism and autism.
Social gaze in preterm infants may act as an early indicator of atypical lateralisation
(The Society for Research in Child Development, 2022-02-03) Davis, Rachael; Donati, Georgina; Finnegan, Kier; Boardman, James P.; Dean, Bethan; Fletcher-Watson, Sue; Forrester, Gillian S.
Visual field biases have been identified as markers of atypical lateralisation in children with developmental conditions, but this is the first investigation to consider early lateralised gaze behaviours for social stimuli in preterm infants. Eyetracking methods with 51 preterm (33 male, 92.1% White) and 61 term-born (31 male, 90.1% White) infants aged 8-10 months from Edinburgh, UK, captured the development of visual field biases, comparing gaze behaviour to social and non-social stimuli on the left versus right of the screen. Preterm infants showed a significantly reduced interest to social stimuli on the left versus right compared to term children (d =.58). Preterm children exhibit early differential orienting preferences that may be an early indicator of atypical lateralised function.
Supporting Autistic Pupils in the EAL Classroom
(Springer, 2024-08-24) Digard, Bérengère G.; Davis, Rachael
This chapter focuses on how to optimally support autistic children in the EAL classroom. There has been a seismic shift in recent years towards a social model of autism, which is described here, beginning with introducing what autism is (and what it is not). The chapter begins by providing an overview of recent findings relating to social communication skills and how these findings are crucial to implementing inclusive practice in the classroom. This chapter focuses on the implications of autism for learning, language development, and English language learning, suggesting strategies to support pupils’ learning by leveraging their strengths and harnessing their interests. A comprehensive review of the current evidence regarding the intersection of autism and additional language learning, such as English, is presented. The chapter addresses common misconceptions about bilingualism for autistic children. It then presents evidence regarding the different effects of bilingualism on the thinking and learning skills of autistic children, before reporting on the relationship between bilingualism and the lived experiences of autistic people themselves. Finally, the chapter explores recommendations for good practice when supporting autistic pupils in their bilingual development and their learning of English as an additional language, with a particular focus on education research in the EAL classroom.
“The Languages That You Know Draw the Boundary of Your World”: A Thematic Analysis of the Experiences of Autistic Bilingual Adults Living in the United Kingdom
(Mary Ann Liebert Inc, 2022-08-22) Digard, Bérengère G.; Davis, Rachael; Stanfield, Andrew; Sorace, Antonella; Fletcher-Watson, Sue
“There's Only So Much the School Can Change About Itself ...Before You Need to Change Something About Yourself" – a Qualitative Analysis of the Experiences of Neurodivergent Student Teachers.
(Mary Ann Liebert, 2024-07-22) Jack, Caryll; Crane, Laura; Kenny, Aisling; Blaisdell, Caralyn; Davis, Rachael
Background: In Scotland, to become qualified to teach children in primary schools (aged 4-11 years), student educators must complete degree programmes that include a combination of university and school-based placement learning environments. Previous studies have examined the experiences of neurodivergent students in other professional degree programmes, most notably in healthcare. Yet there is limited research considering the barriers and enablers for neurodivergent students in programmes leading to careers in education. Methods: This study contributes to the evidence base by examining the experiences of neurodivergent student participants from two Education Studies programmes run by one Scottish university: one including required professional placement experience in schools leading to professional teaching qualification status, and the other a theory-based course with flexible community placement options. Nine neurodivergent students, all originally following the professional placement strand, participated in a semi-structured interview. Data analysis was led by a neurodivergent educator, using reflexive thematic analysis. The resultant themes identified were named to reflect the lived experience of participants: Who we are matters; How we are matters; How we know matters and What we need matters. Results: Neurodivergent education students reported risk of withdrawal from and/or challenges within the professional strand programme, particularly emphasised in relation to placements. They felt that they needed to navigate additional systemic barriers to reach the same result as neurotypical peers. Further, they discussed how the accessibility and attitudes of others impact upon opportunities for disclosure, inclusion, and support. Our findings also suggest the possibility of an attitudinal hierarchy of neurodivergence acceptability occurring within educational environments. Conclusions: Neurodivergent students report a range of challenges when attempting to successfully complete education degree programmes leading to the teaching profession. Our findings identify the need for greater advocacy, support, and inclusion of neurodivergent participation, which attends to the nuanced experienced that education students face.
What do new findings about social interaction in autistic adults mean for neurodevelopmental research?
(Association for Psychological Science, 2021-02-09) Davis, Rachael; Crompton, Catherine J.
Deficit-based accounts of social and communication abilities continue to dominate autism research. However, emerging findings suggest that this view may be overly simplistic and discount the two-way nature of interaction. Here we discuss the reconceptualization of social cognition to consider such difficulties as examples of bidirectional, multifaceted misattunement between autistic and nonautistic individuals. Aligned with progressive theoretical frameworks, emerging empirical research indicates that mismatches in communication styles can contribute to autistic social difficulties and the important role that nonautistic difficulties play. We highlight two areas of future research with the aim of providing empirical support for the views that the autistic community has proposed over the past 2 decades. We discuss the impact of such a paradigm shift on a number of levels, including how bridging the gap between different interaction styles can reduce stigma and increase understanding. Adopting such a framework will provide radical opportunities for transformative societal changes and education around inclusion.
Why study bilingualism in autistic people?
(SAGE, 2022-09-15) Davis, Rachael; Hampton, Sarah C; Fletcher-Watson, Sue
“You are the Expert of Your Own Experience”: A Thematic Analysis of Experiences of Autism and Gender Diversity in Adulthood
(Mary Ann Liebert, 2023-09-08) Glackin, Amelia; Pearson, Amy; Davis, Rachael
Background Autistic people are more likely to report gender dysphoric traits, and transgender and gender expansive (TGE) individuals frequently report higher scores on self-report measures of autistic traits. Despite the clear association between autism and gender diversity, there is a dearth of qualitative research exploring the lived experiences of autistic adults. Methods This study contributes to the evidence base by exploring the strengths and challenges of the intersectional experiences of autism and gender diversity in adulthood. Twelve transgender/gender expansive autistic people participated in an online semi-structured interview or an open-ended survey, and reflexive thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. Results Three main themes were identified: (1) Navigating a gender journey, (2) The impact of social context on self and (3) Provision of healthcare. Conclusion The findings highlight the importance of acknowledging the unique experiences of being both an autistic and transgender/gender expansive person to further understand the intersection between autism and gender diversity.